Sustainable Community Design

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“Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” [1]
external image Plants%20in%20hands%20environment.jpg

Sustainable Community Design seeks to develop environmentally friendly practices that reuse and recycle materials, reduce emissions, and save energy. While being economically, environmentally, and socially resilient, a sustainable community will manage its resources to provide solutions to current problems while leaving sufficient resources for future generations.[2] Sustainability in a community begins with insightful planning, development and construction and is continued through water conservation, effective waste disposal, and efficient transportation.



History
The concept of sustainability surfaced during the postwar development period of the 1980's. In 1987, the term "sustainable development" was coined by the Brundtland Commission's report Our Common Future . The report analyzed the global environment from a political, social, and economic perspective [3] . During 1987, global interest was gathered and the groundwork was laid for the 1992 Earth Summit.[4] The Brundtland report had affirmed the serious role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) on environmental and development issues (2) This led the 1992 Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro to be of unprecedented size and scope. [5] The overarching concern of the conference was the strain on the environment caused by the excessive consumption of resources by prosperous populations [6] To address this issue, 108 countries adopted the three major policies ratified at the Earth Summit:[7]
  • Agenda 21 — a 900 page, comprehensive program of action for global action in all areas of sustainable development
  • The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development — a series of principles defining the rights and responsibilities of States
  • The Statement of Forest Principles — a set of principles to underlie the sustainable management of forests worldwide
The Earth Summit was in many ways vague in how sustainable development should be implemented in various countries ranging in stages of development [8] . The result was countries approaching the problem of sustainability from opposite directions, with no one central goal being accomplished [9] . At the turn of the 21st century, countries continued to ask questions of sustainable development: what is defined as a need, how does sustainability impact culture, and how do polices ensure that the global goal of sustainable development is being met[10] .
Earth Summit, 1992
Earth Summit, 1992

Approaches to Sustainability

Planning and Development

Sustainable development can begin as early as the planning and development prior to construction of a community. Wise planning can lead to less natural resource demand and provide a safer, more enjoyable atmosphere within the community.[11] A common sustainable planning and development technique is Smart Growth. This technique focuses on the efficient use of land, compact development, and ease of public transportation while still providing an appealing and livable community.[12] An area of study for Smart Growth is urban sprawl, a concept that has been linked to poor air quality, obesity, and high residential energy use [13] . Sprawl is measured by four factors: [14]
  • Development density
  • Land use mix
  • Activity centering
  • Street accessibility
With these factors taken into account, communities can be constructed to decrease sprawl, which in turn increases quality of life and decreases the environmental footprint of the community [15] . Regulations and restrictions in a community can help decrease sprawl through: [16]
  • Establishing a homebuyer assistance program to decrease new construction and increase the compactness of a community
  • Heavy emphasis on downtown construction
  • Changing zoning codes to increase residential density

Water Conservation and Reclamation
Distribution of water uses
Distribution of water uses

Water is a resource both essential to human life and lifestyle of the 21st century [17] . When constructing a community, both water conservation and reclamation play an important role in increasing sustainability. Avoiding water waste is a first step in establishing a sustainable water system. Water waste can occur in communities in many forms, from excess storm runoff to imprudent irrigation use. Runoff ends up in oceans, rivers, lakes and ground water. It is often a source of water contamination because the runoff picks up oils and other contaminates that often exist on pavements. A viable, though expensive solution, is permeable pavements, a system that can collect most runoff and even provide a natural filtration system.[18] In addition to water conservation, water reclamation enhances the sustainability of a community by displacing approximately 88% of the water use [19] . Reclaimed water is used in place of potable (drinking) water in systems such as air conditioning, industry cooling, and irrigation. Hydroponic systems, moving bed bioreactors, and constructed wetlands are the latest technology used for reclamation [20] .

Waste Disposal

Sustainable communities consider how waste will be handled during and post construction. Significant waste is generated during construction. Repurposing wasted construction materials helps offset costs of construction while decreasing the impact on the environment [21] . Examples of repurposed construction are: [22]
  • Cardboard, paper, plastics and metals > converted into new goods
  • Clean wood > mulch or biomass fuel
  • Dirt, rock and sand > Alternative Daily Cover (ADC) in landfills
  • Crushed concrete > gravel or dry aggregate for new concrete
Post construction waste is the four pounds of waste produced individually per day by Americans. Rather than being sent to a landfill, most of the waste can be used sustainably.[23] Composting organic material that otherwise ends its lifecycle in landfills, could reduce the environmental strain of disposal and provide a useful byproduct.[24] Recycling certain materials can also alleviate the heavy burden placed upon these land fills. Constructing recycling facilities creates more jobs, produces raw materials that can be used in industry, and can even be less expensive than typical land fill disposal.[25]

Transportation

A grass-lined lined railway in Europe. The grass provides a permeable surface for stormwater drainage, reduction of urban heat island effect, and reduction of pollution.
A grass-lined lined railway in Europe. The grass provides a permeable surface for stormwater drainage, reduction of urban heat island effect, and reduction of pollution.
In 2009, the average American household had nearly two cars.[26] Exhaust pollution from vast numbers of cars is harmful to the atmosphere.[27] In order to provide more sustainable communities, constructed roadways focus on minimizing the number of miles traveled. Travel networks are constructed to reduce the need for private transportation and increase the use of environmentally friendly public transportation. Integrated transit systems can often eliminate the use of private vehicles. A common approach to sustainability is a subway system for inner-city transportation that is connected to a rail system to reach outlying communities.[28] Bus systems with dedicated lanes and use of high occupancy lanes on highways can also provide an efficient form of public transportation. Meanwhile, electric cars for neighborhood or limited, residential travel help reduce pollution while providing private transportation.


Financial Considerations

Analyzing the cost of achieving a sustainable community is challenging due to the many approaches that can be taken to sustainable design and the amount of government subsidy available . Typically, costs of sustainable construction are initially higher, while longterm usage helps recover the cost [29] . On average, sustainably designed buildings decrease operating costs between 8-9%. Sustainable designs increase a building's value by approximately 7.5% and are said to increase occupancy rates by 3.5% [30] . Ultimately, the cost of a sustainable community will come down the components a particular community wishes to implement, the scale at which they are implemented, and how much financial support the government is wiling to offer.


Sustainable Frameworks

The increasingly popular consideration of community sustainability is often met with controversial themes or approaches. Definitions of sustainability differ from community to community which can cause problems with agreeing upon a standard approach.[31] The aforementioned sustainability approaches represent common themes, however, achieving sustainability in each area can be difficult without a standard process to follow. This presents the need for established frameworks. Many organizations have created frameworks to help communities take meaningful steps toward sustainability. The Natural Step (TNS), an international nonprofit organization devoted to sustainability, provides an iconic framework and approach that is currently being applied to communities around the world.[32] The TNS approach is organized into five interrelated levels:
1. System - principles in defining the functioning of the community
The Natural Step
The Natural Step

2. Success - sustainable principles relating to a favorable outcome
3. Strategic - the step-by-step plan to reach the favorable outcome
4. Actions - every step and action implemented during the transition tosustainability
5. Tools - used to systematically monitor the actions that follow the strategic plan to the arriveat the success of the system[33]


Though popular, TNS is not the only sustainable framework used in constructing sustainable communities. The US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Green Communities Plan provides a systematic approach that assesses the condition of the community, analyzes trends, defines a goal, and creates and implements an action plan.[34] This framework is readily available and can be accessed by communities via the US EPA's website.

Sustainable Communities

Germany, Denmark, and Sweden

A Road Map for Making Our Communities More Liveable Exhibit2.jpg
Transportation Data from the Green City Index

Germany, Denmark, and Sweden, have developed a reputation in the past decade for leading the world in community sustainability.[35] Green buildings, integrated bike paths, pedestrian-only streets, and maintained parks and recreation have been implemented by these countries to help sustain the environment. Multimodal, mobility systems is the most pronounced sustainability organism in Germany and Scandinavia. This system includes high speed rails from city to city, trains connecting major hubs within cities, and well planned bike paths.[36] This allows an individual to bicycle to the nearest train station where he can essentially travel anywhere. On average, 48 percent of the working population in Copenhagen, Hamburg, Oslo and Stockholm walks or bikes to work. An additional 21 percent utilizes public transportation.[37]

Marghita, Romania

Marghita, a small town located in northwest Romania, has served as an indicator on the competitiveness of small towns in sustainable development [38] . Marghita was able to outperform the national average for sustainability, measured by indicators such as public health, green space, and greenhouse gas emission [39] . This out performing was accomplished both through inherent factors of small town communities and local government
Screen Shot 2014-11-29 at 3.19.58 PM.png
Social factors as sub-indicators of sustainability in the community of Marghita
programs to increase sustainability[40] . The concept of small towns being competitive in
sustainable development stands in contrast with models suggesting that urban construction is the solution to sustainable communities.


Hungary

d5321aa966.jpg
Hungary, along with the European Union (EU) has witnessed a shift from industrial agriculture to ecological agriculture [41] . Ecological agriculture focuses on chemical free (organic) crop production[42] . This process applies to both the plants and animals being produced though ecological agriculture [43] . Increased demand for organic goods and government stipends though programs such as the National Agri-Environmental Program have aided many farmers in their transition from industrial agriculture to industrial agriculture [44] . Under the guidance of National Agri-Environmental Program, the entity over 95% of ecological agriculture in Hungary, Hungarian farmers select crops that resilient and adapted to local environments [45] . Ecologic agriculture in Hungary has yet to bring in competitive profits to other methods. A solution suggested to increase the profitability of agricultural farming is to construct processing facilities and slaughterhouses [46] . The construction and integrations of these facilities into a community would also decrease unemployment, further bettering the community [47] .

Current Research

General Information

Sustainable community design is a relevant topic that is currently being researched world wide. Simon Fraser University[48] , Institute for Sustainable Communites[49] , and the University of Denver[50] are among many institutions currently researching sustainable methods for our communities.

Construction Materials

Ongoing research is being preformed on sustainability in construction materials. One area of research focuses on the possibility utilizing Natural Fiber Composites (NFCs). Research was performed on one such NFC, Hemp-Fiber-Reinforced Composite with Recycled High-Density Polyethylene Matrix, by Lu and Korman. Their finding show that the particular NFC shows viable mechanical properties for use in civil engineering applications.

**Fired clay bricks** are another construction that can be modified for sustainable construction. Various waste products (additives) can be added to clay prior to firing to achieve a brick with specific properties. In Construction and Building Materials, testing and analysis were performed when different waste products were added to fired clay brick to document the properties associated with each additive.

Green Building

The designing and construction in green building is far from a streamline procedure, rather a complex system of factors and goals. Currently, the process for certifying green building is regulated primarily by Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). Research is being done by Wu Yun to develop a systematic way of evaluating entire green building systems in accordance with LEED.

Ergonomics in Sustainable Design

Looking at how humans interact with sustainable design can be done by looking at how ergonomics is connected with sustainable design. In their research, Radjiyev and others from the Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology look at trends relating ergonomics and sustainability.

Further Reading

Maliene, V. and Naglis, M. "High-Quality Housing - A key issue in delivering sustainable communities." Building and Environment, Volume 44, Issue 2. February 2009. Pages 426--430. <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132308000565>

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